Introduction
After seizing control of the Punjab Empire, the British fought numerous wars with the Afghans; these conflicts are known as the Anglo-Afghan Wars. These wars led to the British capturing more areas and incorporating them into the British Indian Empire. These regions became part of British India and came to be known as ‘the agencies’ when the Afghan King Abdul Rehman Khan established the Durand Line and the British India-Afghan Border in 1893. They included Mohmand, Orakzai, North and South Waziristan, Bajaur Agency, Khaybar Agency, and Kurram. After annexing these regions, the British Empire and the Russian Empire came face to face, with only a narrow strip of Wakhan separating them.
The British Legacy and Strategic Interests
The British believed that Russia would invade the weak areas of the empire in order to seize warm waters. Considering its strategic importance, the British started to give this area special treatment. In 1901, Lord Curzon, the Viceroy of India, established the North Western Frontier Province (NWFP), which included Dera Ismail Khan, Hazara, Peshawar, Kohat, and Bannu. The British always had a security-focused perspective on this area, and hence, it was excluded from the political and social developments in British India. There was no political representation for its population, though a political agent was responsible for the administration of these agencies; he was answerable to the British Raj rather than the native people.
Post-Independence Governance
These agencies became part of Pakistan after the partition. Rather than granting them political representation and integrating them into the province, Pakistan used political agents to govern these agencies. The political agents used a draconian law to deal with the natives, known as the Frontier Crimes Regulation (FCR) 1901. After 71 years of independence, in 2018, these areas were transferred to the KPK province, which was established following the Eighteenth Amendment in 2010. Though the entirety of KPK has been affected by this move, Kurram remains the most affected area due to its demographics.
Kurram: Demographics and Geography
Kurram is one of the former tribal districts of Pakistan that borders Afghanistan. There are numerous tribes in Kurram, including the Turis, the Bangashes, and the Mangals. With a 43 percent Shia population and a 57 percent Sunni population, the largest Shia tribal group in Kurram is the Turi. The Sunni and Shia populations make up the Bangash tribe.
Kurram is divided into three regions: Lower Kurram, which is centred around Sadda, has a Sunni majority population, though there is also a sizeable number of Shia citizens; Upper Kurram, which is home to Parachinar, contains the Shia-majority Turi tribe. Except for one small village, central Kurram is almost entirely Sunni. Kurram is famous for its towering peaks and maple trees, but little is known about the chequered history and deep-seated tensions that lie beneath this picturesque surface.
Recent Attacks and Growing Tensions
On November 21, 2024, a convoy of civilians, mostly Shias, was attacked, killing at least 54 and injuring 86 others. Unfortunately, this is not a one-off occurrence, giving rise to the question: Why is this violence recurring, and is there any end to this?
The majority of the disputes are over land; however, they are portrayed as sectarian; this does not, of course, imply that there are no sectarian disputes. Boshera, a village in Upper Kurram where both the Shia and the Sunni factions of the population live together, has become a centre for land disputes that have escalated since 2023. The conflict is decades long on a 100-kanal plot of land, which has caused many clashes.
The Failure of Local Governance
The jirgas’ efforts have remained futile, and the issues remain unresolved. Land is often held communally in formal tribal areas with little to no documentation. While under British control, the land in Upper and Lower Kurram was surveyed and marked off. However, the conflict remains unresolved. The Muree Agreement of 2011 brought this issue to light, but the authorities involved were unable to address the fundamental issues. To fully understand the Kurram conflict, it is unfair not to discuss the historical context.
The Historical Context: British Influence and Tribal Relations
According to British Indian soldier and author Colin Metcalfe Enriquez, the Turis sided with the British in the Second Anglo-Afghan War in 1887, allowing General Roberts to pass through their territory in Afghanistan in exchange for British security due to fear of potential aggression from their Sunni neighbours. In 1892, Kurram officially came under the British.
In his book The Pathan Borderland, Colin describes the Turi tribe as residing in Kurram. According to the author:
“They are all Shiah Mahommedans. There are a good many Bungash. Lower Kurram also has ‘Shiahs.’ While the Bungash of Miranzai, except for a few communities of Sunnis, for example, appear in Hangu and Thal. The Turis, unlike all other Pathans, have invited the government to take over their valley. They are on the most friendly terms with the Englishmen who live amongst them, and the heartiness of their salutation when they meet a sahib ’is quite refreshing to listen to. The Turis look upon the British Government as their deliverer from the oppression of their rapacious ‘Sunni’ neighbours.”
Shifting Dynamics: The Role of the Cold War and the Mujahideen
For almost a century, Shia and Sunni tribes lived together with little disagreement on land issues, resources, and religious events. Many political analysts believe that the events of 1979 in Afghanistan and Iran shifted the region’s dynamics. The Islamic revolution in Iran was marked by demographic and ideological changes, as well as the influx of Sunni Mujahideen and their jihad against the Soviets, which was funded by the United States of America and Saudi Arabia, with training provided by Pakistan.
Kurram was the launching pad of the mujahideen into Afghanistan because of its location, and there was no clear border boundary at the time. There was a massive influx of Mujahideen who began to resettle in Kurram and surrounding areas in the 1980s and began cultivating Shia tribes’ lands, exacerbating the never-ending land disputes, which became sectarian as there was also a cold war between the Saudis and the Iranians. Saudis were fearful of the Iranian Revolution, while Iranians preached the revolution. Shia activism in the district exacerbated tensions between the two groups, with Iran supporting the Shia and Saudis siding with the Sunni mujahideen.
The Impact of the War on Terror and the Taliban’s Refuge
The war on terror later wreaked havoc in this region when the US-led NATO forces entered Afghanistan and the Taliban began to seek refuge in Pakistani districts bordering Afghanistan, Kurram being one of them. The Shia population protested and refused to shelter them, resulting in multiple fights. Then came the TTP in 2007, and the crisis worsened in April 2007, with 200 deaths and the expulsion of Sunnis from Parachinar. Both sides were accused of attacking each other’s worship places and properties.
What Lies Ahead for Kurram?
One does not know what will become of Kurram or Parachinar, but it is clear that things will not improve in the near future. It is commendable that the government has launched operations in various areas of the Kurram district to clear out armed miscreants, but we have seen many operations in the past that resulted in short-term peace; one hopes this is not the case this time. Kurram’s people deserve peace, and their children, too, should carry pens rather than weapons.
The Plight of Displaced People
People who have left their homes and are unable to return because they are travelling on a specific road deserve justice. Imagine being a professional or a student in a large metropolitan city and being unable to return to your hometown. Unfortunately, for most people, this is not a hypothetical situation but rather a dark reality they are forced to endure. One can only hope that good sense prevails and that the government prioritises this issue over petty politics; if not now, when?